RHESSI Monograph Index

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

DOI 10.1007/s11214-011-9827-3

Index

Published online: 24 September 2011

abundances, 202

above-the-looptop sources, 159, 358

adiabatic invariants, 233

identification with acceleration region,

correlation of ions and relativistic

242, 431

electrons, 198

absorption

illustration, 198

Earth’s atmosphere, 269

diagnostics, 8

mm waves, 249

electron-to-proton ratio, 197, 199, 439

photoelectric, 310

energy content of, 5, 194, 440

solar atmosphere

caveat, 197

Co Kα, 200

reduction in warm medium, 197

abundances, 77, 287, 364

energy content, ions vs. electrons, 197

³He, 184

energy spectra, 379, 397, 406, 413

and γ -ray production, 174

3-D reconnection, 392

and γ -ray spectra, 181

energy-dependent index, 360

and acceleration of heavy ions, 364

spectral index, 390

and Compton scattering, 310

heavy ions, 202, 364

and FIP effect, 183

importance of, 4

and helioseismology, 183

in quiet Sun, 210

and model atmospheres, 181

ion primary spectrum, 189

assumptions in γ -ray analysis, 195

low energies, 5

bremsstrahlung efficiency, 112

low-energy cutoff, 424

CMEs, 439

low-energy protons, 201

coronal, 77

number problem, 4, 6, 414

evaporation, 158

pitch-angle distribution

Fe/H, 78, 81

ions, 173

γ -ray constraints, 181

transport, 412

Ne/O ratio, 190, 364

acceleration, 76

and warm target, 197

Alfvén waves, 380

SEPs, 439

and CME acceleration, 74

accelerated particles

and large-scale processes, 122

448

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

and magnetic reconnection, 369

in PIC approach, 408

and mean flux spectrum, 317

list of mechanisms, 160, 368

and neutron production, 168

low-energy cutoff, 25, 81, 85

and particle transport, overview, 412

models, 368

3-D reconnection, 414

multiple current sheets

collapsing traps, 413

issues, 400

current sheets, 413

particle-in-cell (PIC), 402

electric circuit, 412

limitations, 411

magnetic islands, 414

pre-acceleration of ions, 377

radiative transport, 412

pre-flare phase, 367

return current, 412

proton

self-organized criticality, 414

need for pre-acceleration, 377

stochastic acceleration, 412

SEPs, 37, 76, 86, 142, 145, 160, 268,

424,

438

transit-time damping, 413

shock, 155, 215, 375, 439

turbulence, 412

quasi-parallel, 375

and pitch-angle change, 384

quasi-perpendicular, 376

betatron, 378, 383

“seed” particles, 375

bulk energization, 441

termination, 384

by flares, 433

shock-drift, 378, 384

cellular automaton model, 396

electrons, 384

chromospheric, 428

illustration, 385

collapsing magnetic trap, 383, 413

relativistic, 257

conditions for runaway, 368

similarities of shock and turbulent

DC electric field, 120, 148

mechanisms, 377

delayed, 439

sources of electric field, 368

diffusive shock acceleration, 439

stochastic, 65, 146, 148, 154, 216, 376,

direct electric field, 397

377, 379, 413

discovery of solar relativistic particles, 168

ad hoc waves, 378

distribution functions, 328

spectrum not a power law, 377

electron-proton asymmetry, 387, 403, 413

limitations of models, 379, 400, 414

dependence on strength of guide field,

MHD turbulence, 412

389

multiple current sheets, 396, 413

electrons

net electrical current, 379

by Alfvén waves, 380

parameter dependence, 378

high efficiency, 237

radio observations, 240

timescales, 359

resonant cascade, 377

extended flare, 204

stochastic current sheets, 399

Fermi

test-particle approach, 6, 359, 378

first order, 376, 378, 383

limitations, 401, 414

in shrinking islands, 409, 429

transit-time damping, 146, 376, 379, 413

second order, 376

two-stage, 138, 148

from thermal plasma, 115

acceleration region, 137, 145, 155, 156, 159,

γ -ray diagnostics, 168

342

in chromosphere, 380

above-the-loop-top source, 242

in current sheets, 386

and polarization, 350

fan and spine geometry, 391

and SHH pattern, 148

illustration, 389, 390

and SHS pattern, 160

multiple, 395

bulk acceleration, 379

in Dreicer field, 368

charge separation, 412

in MHD turbulence, 359, 377, 398, 400

distinguished from energy-loss region,

test-particle experiments, 398

108, 109, 157, 192, 217, 218

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

449

electrons, 428

and termination shock, 383

escape from, 129, 154, 174, 358

gradient in chromosphere, 381

extended, 136

in the impulsive phase, 380

height, 109, 158

middle corona, 76

replenishment, 363

variation with height

return current, 7, 109

illustration, 76

separatrix structure, 156

Ampère’s Law, 7, 126

spectral cutoff, 120

anisotropy

test-particle approach, 6, 359, 401

electron, 303, 329, 333, 334

turbulence, 178, 378, 380

X-ray, 329, 332

ACRIM, 82

arcade, 22, 29, 30, 38, 45, 46, 51, 70, 433

active regions

and γ -ray images, 421

and flare occurrence, 21

growth, 70

as source of background radiation, 270

illustration, 22, 28, 43

association with major flares, 267

magnetic structure, 72

association with microflares, 269

microwave free-free emission, 247

illustration, 269

non-thermal radiation, 247

fractal structure, 397

particle drifts, 433

high Alfvén speed, 227, 380

atmospheric models

non-flaring X-ray emission, 278

“spicular extended chromosphere”, 131

simple structures, 265

and 511-keV line shape, 187

slow reconnection, 437

chromospheric density, 178

active-region transient brightenings (ARTBs),

FAL, 131

267

hydrostatic, 132

identification with microflares, 270

semi-empirical, 131

illustration, 287

VAL, 131

adiabatic compression, 59

aurora, 431

adiabatic invariants, 233

Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE), 83

albedo, 122, 131, 142, 157, 286, 303, 304,

backwarming, 56, 58

306, 309, 312, 313, 319, 320, 326,

Balmer-α

332, 333, 335, 349, 361, 362, 421,

impact polarization, 87

424

Bayesian approach, 23

and low-energy cutoff, 119

beams, 241, 252, 337, 363

correction, 285, 326

α-particle, 202

illustration, 285

and type III bursts, 252, 253

dip in spectrum, 119, 287

and waves, 8

Green’s function approach, 310

area, 8

illustration, 310

at photosphere, 55

halo component, 313

broad angular distribution, 192

imaging, 312, 316

downgoing, 194

low-energy cutoff, 122

radio detectability, 254

microflare spectra, 285

electric field, 379

spatial-frequency signature, 313

electron-proton asymmetry, 403

spectroscopy, 309, 310

induced fields, 126

use of visibilities, 314

induced magnetic field, 7

Alfvén speed, 372, 429

propagation, 123

and downflows, 30

proton, 56, 57

and electron thermal speed, 381

radio/HXR correlation, 254

and injection, 377

return current, 7, 202

and reconnection, 429, 431, 435

self-inductance, 7

450

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

super-Alfvénic, 122

causality, 23

un-neutralized, 157

caveats

vs. conduction fronts, 43

acceleration in test-particle approach, 400

betatron radiation, 227

specific problems, 401

big-flare syndrome, 40, 267

ambiguity of standard model, 257

microflares, 291

emission-measure weighting, 279

bounced particles, 387, 403

energy scale for occurrence distribution,

bound-bound emission, 78, 303

277

bound-free absorption

exceptional conditions in flares, 181

illustration, 311

γ -ray imaging, 215

bremsstrahlung, 6, 108, 285, 303

gaps in time series, 283

>300 keV, correlation with γ -rays, 198

inverse theory for γ -rays, 196

and densities inferred from radio, 246

limitation of test-particle approach, 378,

Bethe-Heitler cross-section, 113, 114, 228,

387

305

limits of MHD approach, 374

competition with π⁰ decay, 204

line-of-sight effects, 245

cross-section, 110

low-energy cutoff, 119

efficiency, 8

MHD turbulent acceleration

efficiency decrease with frequency, 248

list of problems, 400

electron-electron, 229, 303, 308, 317, 324,

nature of low-energy cutoff, 287

360

non-scalable properties, 267

electron-ion, 304, 306, 308, 317

particle energy content, 197

from charged pion decay, 203

photospheric field extrapolation, 49, 83

γ -ray continuum, 170

RHESSI

Haug cross-section, 322

detector-to-detector calibration, 316

independence of γ -ray line emission, 199

rotation axis, 270

Kramers approximation, 8, 113, 114, 304

spectral fits and background subtraction,

multithermal, 360

317

nonthermal, 317, 360

CCD, 35

NRBH, 113

cellular automata, 284, 378, 396

software, 115

center-to-limb variation, 329, 332

sources displaced from 2.223-MeV

illustration, 332, 333

sources, 214

charge exchange, 87

thermal, 317, 327, 359

Cherenkov resonance, 376

thick-target, 7, 150, 264, 362

CHIANTI, 77, 79, 80, 287, 318

thin target

energetics, 84

type III burst, 256

Fe/Fe-Ni ratio, 79

thin-target, 70, 150, 229, 254

chicane, 157

ultrarelativistic case, 229

chromosphere

brightness temperature, 230

flare-related flows, 26

chromospheric condensation, 60

chromospheric density model, 131

Carrington, R. C., 4

and 511 keV line width, 187

cartoons, 87, 88

and hard X-ray imaging, 344

collapsing trap

and magnetic field, 171

illustration, 383

chromospheric evaporation, 25, 28, 58, 127,

Giovanelli, 89

130, 133, 135, 139, 158, 273

omissions, 90

conduction-driven, 38

Poynting-flux transport

explosive, 59, 60

illustration, 380

illustration, 60

standard, 89, 383

gentle, 59, 61

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

451

illustration, 62

equilibrium, 80

imaging, 62

parameter dependence, 29

temperature-dependent flows, 61

radiative, 29, 84, 138

chromospheric heating, 59, 62

coronal dimmings, 73, 75

in flares, 60

coronal heating

collapsing magnetic trap, 47, 413, 441

and reconnection, 88

collisions

chromospheric, 59

and column density, 304

in flare-like events, 20

and polarization, 335

nanoflares, 264

and transport, 349

coronal mass ejections (CMEs), 5, 23, 26, 73,

energy losses, 123, 305

122, 159, 267

particle energy losses, 108, 109, 111

abundances, 439

column density, 111, 118, 123, 131, 152, 157

acceleration, 74

CoMP, 54, 86

acceleration and flare energy release, 73

Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO),

and coronal sources, 68

120, 137, 161

and flares, 5

Compton scattering, 304, 361

and microflares, 267

and attenuation of 2.223 MeV line, 176

and SEP energy

and coronal hard X-ray sources, 206

illustration, 86

Be-scatterer, 336

and soft-hard-harder pattern, 268, 440

cross-section, 304

backside, 440

inverse, 304

energy content, 5

photospheric, 309, 316, 326

energy partition, 84

conduction

illustration, 70

thermal, 28

SOL2002-08-24T01:12 (X3.1), 245

conduction fronts, 61, 130

velocity field, 84

confidence strip, 324

coronal seismology, 93

conjugacy, 38, 71

coronal sources, 62, 68, 149, 173, 238, 240,

continuum

242, 335, 340, 341, 343, 350, 358,

Balmer, 55, 56

365, 367, 393, 429

cyclotron maser, 367

contraction, 70, 441

fast-mode waves, 377

current-sheet morphology, 89

γ -ray bremsstrahlung, 170

double, 66

γ -ray broad-line component, 170

γ -rays, 203, 211

γ -ray pseudo-continuum, 85, 202

hard X-ray footpoints, 70

γ -ray quasi-continuum, 192

HXR and decimetric, 367

H⁻, 55

inverse Compton radiation, 206, 218

hard X-ray, 363

radial elongation, 256

non-thermal electron, 81

spectrum, 343

Paschen, 55

table of parameters, 432

π⁰-decay, 168, 203

thick-target

positronium, 180, 317

illustration, 63

soft X-ray, 77

coronal thick target, 62, 65

three-photon, 186

microwave imaging, 65

two-photon, 77

coronal transients, 5

convective-diffusive equation, 146

CORONAS-F, 336

cooling

cosmic rays

and energy estimates, 84

ground-level events, 168, 422

and shrinkage, 71

shock acceleration, 375

conductive, 28, 29, 138, 139, 360

solar, 37

delay, 139

supernova shock waves, 439

452

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

Coulomb collisions, 264

density

Coulomb logarithm

pre-flare, 242

electron-electron collisions, 111

dentist’s mirror, 333

electron-hydrogen collisions, 123

difference images, 73

Cowling T. G., 89

differential emission measure, 138, 327

Crab Nebula, 10

diffusion coefficient

cross-sections

angular, 376

Bethe-Heitler, 113, 305

energy, 376

Compton scattering, 304

diffusion region, 369, 374

Haug, 322

dimming, 73, 75

heavy nuclei, 209

dipolarization, 27, 31, 90

Kramers approximation, 113, 306

directivity

illustration, 114

hard X-ray, 361

Ne inelastic scattering, 190

X-rays, 333

neutron evaporation, 209

distribution functions

NRBH, 113

bump-on-tail, 392

comparison with Kramers, 114

flare occurrence, 20

comparison with relativistic, 115

purely nonthermal, 441

illustration, 114

distributions

proton capture below 1 MeV, 201

log-normal, 279

thresholds, 174, 184

power law, 295

CSHKP, 29, 30, 43, 46, 65, 66, 428

skew-Laplace, 295

definition, 6

Weibull, 279, 295

current closure, 7

double counting, 82

current sheets, 89, 159, 359, 372, 429

double layer, 130

3-D, 378, 387

downflows, 30, 57

and CMEs, 440

coronal rain, 29

and Hall reconnection, 440

evaporative, 61

and magnetic islands, 429

high temperature, 62

and particle acceleration, 371, 386

soft X-rays, 135

and proton Larmor radius, 375

supra-arcade, 27, 30, 66,

collapsing trap, 413

Dreicer field, 368, 373, 397

electric fields, 372

drift speed

fan plane, 391

strong drift regime, 392

geomagnetic tail, 435

Dungey, J. W., 89

instability, 407

non-neutral, 373, 374

illustration, 371

earthquakes, 281

observed in flares, 408

EIT waves, 75

outflows, 382

electric fields, 120

physical conditions, 372

advective, 411

PIC simulations, 402

inadequacy as a driver, 411

stochastic, 399

and beam deceleration, 127

strong guide field, 389

and particle acceleration, 359

X-ray observations, 65

and particle segregation, 433

current systems, 7

and reconnection rate, 53

inductive time scale, 7

and soft-hard-soft pattern, 147

convective, 28, 53, 425, 437

de Hoffmann-Teller frame, 384

DC, 148

debates

double layers, 130

thermal-nonthermal, 5

Dreicer, 368

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

453

Hall, 401

beam, 109

in current sheets, 372

bump-on-tail, 406

induced by particles, 366, 379

density, 114, 126, 146

large-scale, 368

flux, 112

MHD current-sheet assumption, 374

flux density, 110

parallel, 54, 429, 437

high-energy cutoff, 115, 148, 323

PIC simulations

loss-cone, 233

induced polarization field, 405

low-energy cutoff, 109, 115, 116, 127,

turbulent, 406

139

polarization, 388, 401, 414

Maxwellian, 368

induced by asymmetric acceleration,

mean electron distribution, 361

405

mean electron flux, 112, 113, 118, 122,

problem of origin in simulations,

411

129, 151

reconnection

nonthermal, 242

convective, 372

purely nonthermal, 68, 70, 237, 241,

return current, 126, 411

242, 441

inadequacy as a driver, 411

total flux, 115

self-field, 109, 126

total power, 115, 120, 158

self-induced, 126, 127

dominant tail population, 68, 70, 237, 241,

sub-Dreicer, 359

379, 441

super-Dreicer, 359, 395

energy distribution, 302, 318

turbulent, 401

high-energy cutoff, 323

electrodynamic feedback, 379

spectral break, 324

electron beams

energy flux density, 127

and induced fields, 126

escape, 145

and polarization, 334

energy-dependent, 154

and return current, 379

escape time, 146

and two-stream instability, 401

flux spectrum, 303, 305

and type III bursts, 367

low-energy cutoff, 303

high-energy return current, 412

spectral break, 319, 323

inadequacy of model, 241

high-energy cutoff, 114

inductive fields, 401

injected distribution, 305, 322, 363

electrons

mean electron flux, 112

accelerated

mean flux spectrum, 303

associated current, 363

mean source spectrum, 324

density, 363

mildly relativistic, 308, 367

energy content, 109, 363

nonthermal, 285, 317-319, 325, 327, 334,

flux, 363

337

in microflares, 275

number, 363

early impulsive events, 286

acceleration from thermal plasma, 145

number problem, 4, 362

adiabatic invariants, 233

pitch-angle distribution, 129, 233, 328

angular distribution, 328

radio/HXR spectral mismatch, 235

anisotropy, 233, 303, 329, 333, 334

relativistic, 155, 179, 240, 308

beam energy transport, 8

correlation with 2.223 MeV γ -rays,

beams, 291, 292

198

evidence for, 328

energy content, 197

collision losses, 52, 68, 117, 361

source spectrum, 341

directivity, 316, 334

spectra

distribution function, 302

HXR/radio comparison, 231, 236, 239,

and turbulence, 129

241, 242, 250

454

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

spectrum

surface magnetic field, 242

low-energy cutoff, 287, 424

first ionization potential (FIP) effect, 183

selection effects, 285

flare (individual)

super-Alfvénic beams, 122

SOL1859-09-01T11:18 (pre-GOES),

54,

time-of-flight (TOF) analysis, 137

267, 422

total energy, 4, 292, 364

SOL1969-03-30T02:47 (pre-GOES),

transport, 146, 149

SOL1969-10-20T10:50 (C9.0)

visibilities, 344

polarization, 336

emission measure, 84

SOL1969-10-23T05:15 (pre-GOES)

and Neupert effect, 291

polarization, 336

by GOES class, 21

SOL1969-10-30T09:30 (M7.3)

correlation with temperature

polarization, 336

broad parameter ranges, 289

SOL1970-10-24T05:41 (M6.4)

GOES, 289

polarization, 336

illustration, 288

SOL1970-11-05T03:21 (X2.3)

RHESSI, 289

polarization, 336

definition, 84

SOL1972-08-04 (pre-GOES), 168

differential, 80, 138

γ -ray discovery, 168

continuum emission, 327

energetics, 82

model, 139

illustration, 169

non-thermal, 91

SOL1972-08-04T06:25, 4

radio and SXR, 59

SOL1973-02-05 (pre-GOES)

energetic neutral atoms, 87, 202, 442

energetics, 82

equations of motion, 387, 399

SOL1974-07-05T21:52 (pre-GOES)

relativistic, 387

X-ray polarization, 336

equivalent width, 77, 78

SOL1974-07-06T18:56 (pre-GOES)

eras

X-ray polarization, 336

pre-RHESSI, 142

SOL1978-07-11T10:54 (X3), 168

RHESSI, 19, 33, 82, 167, 184, 217

SOL1979-11-09T03:20 (M9), 168

Skylab, 5, 49

SOL1980-03-29T09:18 (M1), 41

SMM, 217

SOL1980-04-07T01:07 (M4)

Yohkoh, 44

imaging spectroscopy, 338

experimental bias

SOL1980-04-10T09:23 (M4)

DEM weighting, 288

coronal sources, 340

imaging spectroscopy, 338, 340

SOL1980-05-21T20:50 (X1)

fables

imaging spectroscopy, 340

blind man and elephant, 73

SOL1980-06-07T03:22 (M7.3)

Fe lines, 67, 76, 77, 318

modeling, 179, 424

equivalent width, 77

SOL1980-06-21T02:00 (X2.6)

and RHESSI attenuator state, 78

π⁰ continuum, 204

in microflare spectra, 273

neutron-decay electrons, 210

low ionization states, 77

neutrons, 169, 207, 210

filaments, 23

SOL1980-06-27T16:17 (M6.7)

activation, 23

low-energy cutoff, 120

current systems, 423

SOL1980-08-31T12:49 (M2.8)

eruptive, 238, 242, 358

energetics, 83

filling factor, 84, 85

SOL1980-11-15T15:53 (X1)

distribution functions, 292

imaging spectroscopy, 340

hard X-rays, 127

SOL1981-04-27T09:45 (X5.5)

radio/HXR comparison, 242

abundances, 183, 202

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

455

γ -ray spectrum, 438

SOL2000-11-24T15:13 (X2.3)

illustration, 202

neutron detection, 208

modeling, 179

SOL2001-04-10T05:26 (X2.3)

total ion energy, 196

illustration, 28, 43

SOL1981-05-13T06:10 (X1.5)

SOL2001-08-25T16:45 (X5.3), 50

imaging spectroscopy, 340

illustration, 50, 58

SOL1981-07-20T14:41 (M5.5)

radio emission, 237

imaging spectroscopy, 340

white light, 51

SOL1982-02-22T04:44 (M2.7)

SOL2001-10-19T01:05 (X1.6)

imaging spectroscopy, 340

illustration, 22

SOL1982-06-03T13:26 (X8.0)

SOL2002-02-20T09:59 (M4.3)

π⁰ continuum, 204

albedo patch, 314

neutron detection, 207

illustration, 314, 315

neutrons, 169, 207, 210

SOL2002-02-20T11:07 (C7.5)

SOL1984-04-25T01:40 (X13)

chromospheric density structure, 131,

neutrons, 210

132

SOL1989-03-06T13:56 (X15)

coronal hard X-ray source, 150

gamma-ray spectrum, 250

coronal source, 149

SOL1990-05-24T21:45 (X9.3)

coronal source vs. footpoint spectra,

neutron detection, 207

154

neutrons, 207, 210

electron energy spectrum, 322

SOL1990-06-11T09:43 (M4.5)

footpoint heights, 341

gamma-ray spectrum, 250

footpoint differences, 150

radio emission, 250

footpoints, 346

SOL1991-03-22T22:45 (X9.4)

illustration, 254

neutron detection, 207

imaging spectroscopy, 341, 346

SOL1991-06-01T16:14 (X12)

nonuniform ionization, 125

neutrons, 203

spectroscopic images, 346

solar energetic particles, 203

type III bursts, 254

total ion energy, 195

visibilities, 346

SOL1991-06-04T03:37 (X12.0),

170

SOL2002-02-20T21:07 (M2.4)

abundance variations, 183

illustration, 314, 315

illustration, 171

SOL2002-02-26T10:27 (C9.6)

neutron detection, 207

electron energy spectrum, 322,

323

total ion energy, 195

energetics, 83

SOL1991-06-06T01:12 (X12.0)

high energy cutoff, 323

neutron detection, 207

illustration, 314, 315, 361

SOL1991-06-09T04:24 (X10.0)

multi-thermal time delays, 141

neutron detection, 208

SOL2002-03-14T01:44 (M5.7)

SOL1991-06-15T11:17 (X12.0)

neutron detection, 208

footpoint motion, 46

SOL1992-01-13T17:25 (M2.0), 42

SOL2002-03-17T19:31 (M4.0)

above-the-looptop source, 110, 358

electron energy spectrum, 322

coronal hard X-ray source, 441

illustration, 314, 315

famous, 240

nonuniform ionization, 125

table of parameters, 432

SOL2002-03-18T19:18 (C8.9)

time scales, 431

albedo patch, 314

SOL1999-03-18T08:31 (M3.3)

illustration, 314, 315

illustration, 28

SOL2002-03-25T20:08 (C9.8)

SOL2000-07-14T10:24 (X5.7), 45

albedo patch, 314

ribbons in, 414

illustration, 315

456

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

SOL2002-04-15T00:15 (M3.7)

bimodal DEM distribution, 80

coronal thick target, 65

CME energetics, 84

illustration, 63

coronal hard X-ray source, 149, 438

shrinking loops, 70

cross-disciplinary analysis, 11

SOL2002-04-15T03:55 (M1.2)

electron energy spectrum, 317, 322,

electron energy flux, 159

323

low-energy cutoff, 121

electron-to-proton ratio, 199

spectral fits, 121

energetics, 82, 83

SOL2002-04-17T00:40 (C9.9)

energy in non-thermal electrons, 119

illustration, 314, 315

Fe line complex, 67

SOL2002-04-21T01:51 (X1.5)

flare-related changes, 367

γ -ray upper limits, 85

footpoint differences, 151, 365

CME energetics, 84

footpoints, 343, 427

energetics, 82, 83

forward fit, 317

illustration, 70, 248

γ -ray imaging, 212

radio observations, 247

γ -ray line shifts, 192

SEPs, 86

γ -ray spectrum, 191

thermal plasma, 84

γ -rays, 188, 366

SOL2002-04-25T06:02 (C2.5)

hard X-ray precursor, 67, 425

albedo, 325

hard X-rays, 365

SOL2002-04-30T08:22 (M1.3)

illustration, 180, 186, 188, 189, 191,

current sheet, 66

195, 213, 234, 236, 317, 340,

342,

illustration, 65, 66

365, 423, 426

SOL2002-05-06T09:01 (A8.0)

imaging spectroscopy, 341

illustration, 273

ion energy content, 197

SOL2002-05-31T00:16 (M2.4)

ion primary spectrum, 190

Fe feature, 78

line shapes, 188

illustration, 80

magnetic containment, 67

nonuniform ionization, 125

modeling, 179

SOL2002-06-01T03:58 (M1.5)

nonuniform ionization, 124, 125

nonuniform ionization, 125

photon spectrum, 317

SOL2002-06-02T20:44 (M1.0)

pre-impulsive phase, 426, 438

albedo, 319

pulse pileup, 322

electron spectrum, 319

radio observations, 235

forward fit, 319

radio properties, 235

illustration, 319

reconnection, 441

low-energy cutoff, 319

ribbons in, 414

spectral break, 319

SEPs, 86

SOL2002-07-15T11:55 (C9.1),

soft X-ray line emissions, 79

SOL2002-07-17T07:13 (M8.5)

source motions, 441

TRACE, 40

spectroscopic images, 342

illustration, 40

superhot component, 67, 426

SOL2002-07-19T14:30 (<B2)

temperature distribution, 328

illustration, 255

thermal energetics, 84

SOL2002-07-23T00:35 (X4.8), 10

time delays, 363

γ -ray imaging, 214, 216, 433

X-ray polarization, 337, 340

³He abundance, 184

SOL2002-08-06T12:59 (C7.9)

2.2 MeV time profile, 184

electron energy spectrum, 322

511 keV line, 186

SOL2002-08-20T08:25 (M3.4)

abundance variations, 183

albedo, 325, 326, 334

and ion pitch-angle distribution, 194

anisotropy, 334

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

457

electron energy spectrum, 326

γ -ray imaging, 212, 214, 216, 433

electron spectra, 334

511 keV line, 186

illustration, 326, 334

and ion pitch-angle distribution, 194

low-energy cutoff, 325, 326, 362

broad 511 keV line, 186

low-energy cutoff & albedo, 119

γ -ray fluences, 200

SOL2002-08-21T01:41 (M1.4)

γ -ray line shifts, 192

anisotropic distribution, 331

γ -ray spectrum, 190

temperature distribution, 328

γ -rays, 184

SOL2002-08-24T01:12 (X3.1)

gamma-rays, 366

illustration, 245, 247

illustration, 155, 156, 186, 187, 189,

radio observations, 245-247

193, 194, 196, 204, 213, 257, 340,

SOL2002-09-09T17:52 (M2.1)

362

footpoint motions, 47

INTEGRAL observations, 193

ion energy content, 197

SOL2002-09-17T05:54 (C2.0)

ion primary spectrum, 190

albedo, 325, 326

radio dynamic spectrum, 257

electron energy spectrum, 326

radio emission, 155

illustration, 326

submillimeter emission, 205, 250

low-energy cutoff, 325, 326

termination shock, 257, 384, 386

SOL2002-09-29T06:39 (M2.6), 56

TSI detection, 82, 293, 426

SOL2002-09-30T01:50 (M2.1)

X-ray polarization, 337, 340

illustration, 52

SOL2003-10-29T20:49 (X10.0), 23,

52, 54

white light, 51

γ -ray imaging, 212, 214

SOL2002-10-04T05:38 (M4.0), 27

acceleration, 425

SOL2002-11-02T06:07 (C3.9)

egression power, 57

current sheet, 66

footpoint differences, 152

SOL2002-11-09T13:23 (M4.9)

footpoint motion, 47

footpoint convergence, 46

illustration, 53, 54, 57, 213, 428

footpoint motion, 46

X-ray polarization, 336

illustration, 46, 143

SOL2003-11-02T17:25 (X8.3)

spectral evolution, 143

γ -ray imaging, 212, 214

SOL2002-11-28T04:37 (C1.0)

511 keV line, 186

illustration, 135

511 keV line width, 187

X-ray source motion, 133, 135, 136

γ -ray line shifts, 192

SOL2003-04-24T15:53 (C8.2)

illustration, 186, 189, 213, 340

current sheet, 66

ion energy content, 197

SOL2003-04-26T03:06 (M2.1), 78

ion primary spectrum, 190

illustration, 78

X-ray polarization, 340

SOL2003-06-10T14:36 (M2.2), 60

SOL2003-11-03T09:55 (X3.9), 23

SOL2003-06-17T22:55 (M6.8)

abundance variations, 183

coronal hard X-rays, 238

current sheet, 66

illustration, 237, 239

γ -ray line shifts, 192

radio emission, 237, 238

illustration, 71, 72

radio properties, 237

quasi-periodic pulsations, 243

SOL2003-10-22T20:07 (M9.9)

submillimeter emission, 206

above-the-loop-top source, 431

temperature distribution, 328

table of parameters, 432

SOL2003-11-04T19:53 (X17.4), 23

SOL2003-10-24T02:54 (M7.6)

γ -ray spectrum, 190

coronal source vs. footpoint spectra,

γ -rays, 189

154

illustration, 189

spectral evolution, 153

INTEGRAL observations, 194

SOL2003-10-28T11:10 (X17.2), 362

most energetic event, 267

458

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

SOL2003-11-13T05:01 (M1.6)

SOL2005-07-13T14:49 (M5.0), 366

density profiles, 135

coronal hard X-ray source, 150, 151

evaporation, 62

illustration, 365

illustration, 63, 133, 135

SOL2005-07-27T05:02 (M3.7)

increasing density, 135

radio observations, 242

Neupert effect, 139

SOL2005-08-25T04:40 (M6.4)

illustration, 340

source locations vs. photon energy, 133

X-ray polarization, 340

X-ray brightness profiles, 134

SOL2005-09-07T09:52 (X17.0)

X-ray source motion, 133

γ -ray spectrum, 190

SOL2003-11-18T08:31 (M3.9)

γ -rays, 189

flux transfer, 54

illustration, 189

illustration, 56

INTEGRAL observations, 194

SOL2004-01-06T06:29 (M5.8)

neutron detection, 208

chromospheric density & magnetic

SOL2006-07-06T08:36 (M2.5)

structure, 132

CME, 73

footpoint sizes, 344

SOL2006-11-06T08:32 (B1)

visibilities, 344

illustration, 271

SOL2004-11-01T03:22 (M1.1)

SOL2006-11-06T22:40 (A1)

footpoint motions, 47

illustration, 271

illustration, 48

SOL2006-11-06T22:43 (A3)

SOL2004-11-03T03:35 (M1.6)

illustration, 271

hard-soft-hard, 142

SOL2006-12-05T10:35 (X9)

SOL2004-11-10T02:13 (X2.5)

energetic neutral atoms, 38

illustration, 340

SOL2006-12-06T18:47 (X6.5)

X-ray polarization, 340

illustration, 75, 249

SOL2005-01-17T09:52 (X3.8), 50

submillimeter emission, 249, 251

CME, 73

SOL2007-12-14T14:16 (C1.1)

electron energy spectrum, 324

blueshifts, 61

electron-electron bremsstrahlung, 324

SOL2007-12-31T01:11 (C8.3)

illustration, 30, 51, 74, 324, 340

above-the-loop-top source, 441

photon spectrum, 324

coronal hard X-ray source, 429

illustration, 74, 241, 430

X-ray polarization, 340

microwave imaging, 429

SOL2005-01-19T08:22 (X1.3)

radio observations, 240

high low-energy cutoffs, 122

table of parameters, 432

illustration, 70, 339, 340

flare classification, 20, 266

quasi-periodic oscillations, 122

Hα, 21, 269

soft-hard-harder, 122

table, 21, 267

X-ray polarization, 339, 340

flare energetics, 82

SOL2005-01-20T07:01 (X7.1)

flare frequency distributions, 264, 279, 291

γ -ray imaging, 212, 214-216

active-region dependence, 281

511 keV line, 186

and natural limits, 291

coronal hard X-ray source, 68

and Poisson distribution, 284

illustration, 68, 204, 213, 340

background corrections, 279

inverse Compton emission, 206

biases, 280

ion primary spectrum, 190

break energy, 286

π⁰ continuum, 204

durations, 282

X-ray polarization, 340

illustration, 266

SOL2005-05-13T16:57 (M8.0), 45

microflare comparison, 293

hard X-ray ribbons, 54

multivariate analysis, 282

illustration, 45

nanoflare range, 293

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

459

nanoflares

self-organized criticality (SOC), 264, 282

inconsistency, 293

slip-running reconnection, 46, 50

nonthermal, 293

standard, 6, 87, 89, 159, 428

observational range, 265

illustration, 382

observations of power laws

summary, 87

table, 279

thermal

observed parameters

and polarization, 335

compared with derived, 279

thick-target, 87, 292, 338, 360, 366, 379,

normalized to specific photon energy,

398, 428

279

and HXR source height, 341

sensitivity limit, 279

and polarization, 334

physical range, 265

thin-target, 366

stellar flares, 281

trap-plus-precipitation, 172, 178, 179, 181,

temporal confusion, 279

216, 233

total power, 265

wave energy transport, 8, 380

why a power law? 284

flare types

X-rays, 279

“electron-dominated”, 198, 199, 250

flare kernels, 43

early impulsive, 122, 128, 135,

136, 159,

Hα, 340

286

illustration, 48

filament eruption, 21

on iso-Gauss contours, 50

long-decay events (LDEs), 24

UV, 44

long-duration, 25, 68, 70, 80

white light, 57

loop flares, 244

flare models

spotless, 21

analogy with aurora, 431, 435

two-ribbon, 139, 238, 340, 414

and cartoons, 88

white light, 38, 40, 54

and polarization, 337

energy, 292

and X-ray observations, 159

illustration, 27, 51

avalanche, 282, 295

flares

breakout, 358

and acceleration, 358

casualties, 6

and CMEs, 5, 73

cellular automaton, 284, 378, 395,

396,

and coronal dimming, 73

399

and relativistic particles, 168

illustration, 396, 397

and SEPs, 73

PIC simulation, 398

association with CMEs

collisional thick target, 6

illustration, 268

collisional transport, 349

bolometric measurements, 82

and directivity, 334

Carrington, 4, 54, 267

CSHKP, 6, 29, 30, 43, 46, 65, 6 6, 428

classification, 20, 266

electron beam, 5, 337

Hα, 21

Gold & Hoyle, 6

table, 21, 267

inadequacy of beams, 241

CMEless, 92

magnetic mirror, 52

coronal manifestations, 27

multi-strand, 29, 140

energetics, 82

neutral-point theory, 434

double counting, 82

observational constraints, 87

table, 83

Poynting flux

energy content, 5

illustration, 380

accelerated electrons, 85

predictive power, 88

accelerated ions, 85

radiation hydrodynamic, 41, 59

accelerated particles, 362

reconnection, 369

CME, 84

460

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

distributed coronal release, 248

apparent motions

magnetic, 20, 22, 27, 49, 72, 83

illustration, 46

overall, 83

asymmetry, 51, 152

partition, 82

and microwaves, 52

solar energetic particles, 86

statistics, 52

thermal plasma, 84

converging motions, 46, 71

energy release and CME dynamics,

γ -rays, 212

energy storage, 23, 88

gyrosynchrotron emission, 227

GOES classification, 20

hard X-rays, 109

Hα, 269

height structure, 132, 133

hard X-ray precursor, 26, 67

heights, 341

HXR morphology

HXR and Hα, 423

weighting by B, 244

microflares, 273

HXR, 273

impulsive phase, 26

illustration, 273, 274

Masuda, 42, 63, 240, 429, 432

microwave emission, 275

microwave/HXR morphology, 244

model requirements, 52

loops, 244

motions, 45, 382

model, 159

generation of turbulence, 399

naming convention, 4

non-thermal emission measure, 91

negative, 59

nonthermal electron density, 237

overview

occultation, 68, 81

illustration, 22

parallel motions, 46

phases, 24

separation correlated with HXRs, 71

pre-flare coronal density, 65

simultaneity, 5, 151, 380

pre-flare filament motions, 23

sizes, 341

pre-flare phase, 26

spectral equality, 365

precursor events, 26

spectral similarity, 151

scale invariance, 281

spectrum, 342

stellar

stationary hot component, 59

occurrence distributions, 281

vs. ribbons, 27

“super flares”, 281

white light, 38

total irradiance, 55

forward fit, 317

white light, 40, 55

FOXSI, 442

X-ray fluences, 280

Fraunhofer lines

flux emergence, 27

G band, 33

flux transfer, 40

Hα, 23, 129

Fokker-Planck equation, 127, 152, 154, 376

impact polarization, 87

footpoints, 5, 38, 42, 46, 341-343, 346, 348,

Hβ, 35, 129

350, 358

Ni I 6758 Å, 34

γ -rays, 40

free energy, 20

Alfvén-wave transport, 380

free-bound emission, 55, 56, 77, 158, 303

altitude of sources, 131

illustration, 307

and TRACE diffraction patterns, 40

Kramers approximation, 306

and collapsing traps, 413

non-thermal, 81, 87, 306, 317

and coronal sources, 149

thermal, 77

and Hα ribbons, 50

free-free emission, 6, 77, 108, 234, 303, 304

and loop legs, 133

microwaves, 234

illustration, 133

optically thick, 234

and reconnection rate, 53

frequency

and simultaneous coronal sources, 365

collision, 360, 378

and UV ribbons, 53

and runaway, 368

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

461

cyclotron, 231

continuum, 303

flare occurrence, 329

correlation with hard X-rays, 178, 179,

Larmor, 22, 31, 129, 230, 240, 376, 405

199, 216, 363, 364

harmonics, 248

de-excitation lines, 191, 194, 200-202

ion, 431

fluences, 178

proton, 146

mean widths, 192

microwave peak, 231, 235, 441

deexcitation lines, 364

illustration, 236

delayed emission, 9

occurrence, 264

6.92 keV Co Kα, 200

plasma, 31, 32, 129, 251, 377, 379,

401

deuterium formation, 184

plasma fundamental and harmonic,

367

deuterium formation (2.223 MeV), 9

spatial, 313, 346, 399

electron distribution common to submm

electron visibilities, 346

band, 248

halo source, 313

energy dependence of excitation, 189

illustration, 314

footpoint sources, 212

starting, 76

γ -ray continuum

termination shock, 257

π⁰-decay, 168

turbulence, 413

γ -ray lines

frequency synthesis, 32

neutron capture, 168

frozen-in field, 369, 372, 425

nuclear de-excitation, 168

FWHM, 131, 423

positron annihilation, 168

GRB

polarization, 338

gamma-rays

image properties contrasted with HXR

⁰ -decay, 203

images, 212

0.847 MeV⁵⁶Fe line, 200

imaging, 210, 216, 366, 377

1.238 MeV⁵⁶Fe line, 200

and asymmetric footpoints, 216

1.634 MeV²⁰Ne line, 175

continuum, 215

2.223 MeV line, 175

event summary, 214

absence of Doppler-broadening,

211

in 511 keV line, 215

and >300 keV fluences, 197

visibilities, 212

Compton scattering, 176

inelastic scattering

deuterium formation, 171

ion numbers, 190

effective primary energies, 177

recoil redshifts detected, 188

imaging, 211

less sensitive than mm waves, 249

intrinsic width, 190

lightcurves, 363

limb darkening, 198, 211

limitations of imaging, 215

prediction, 168

line shifts, 192

4.438 MeV¹²C line, 175

list of strong de-excitation lines, 170

511 keV line, 185

long-lived radioisotopes, 199

as radioactive decay product, 200

narrow lines, 364

factors determining shape, 186

narrow-line component, 170

formation conditions, 184, 186

near-simultaneity with HXRs, 363

illustration, 186

non-detection in impulsive events, 438

line width, 186

nuclear de-excitation, 9

6.129 MeV¹⁶O line, 175

nuclear line radiation, 303, 324, 337

67-MeV “bump” from π⁰ decay, 203

π⁰-decay, 204

abundance determinations, 181

and submillimeter emission, 205

and seismic waves, 57

in microflares, 267

and white-light flares, 56

positron annihilation (511 keV), 9

broad lines, 170, 202, 364

redshifts, 192

462

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

sources displaced from bremsstrahlung

hard X-rays, 108

sources, 214

above-the-looptop source, 110, 149, 240,

statistical significance, 183

358

synchronism with hard X-rays, 179, 363

albedo, 119, 122, 157, 303, 304, 309, 310,

tilted fields, 188

312, 313, 319, 320, 326, 333, 335,

and Doppler shifts, 189

349, 361, 412

time-resolved spectra, 183

and decimeter emission, 251

timing relative to hard X-rays, 179

and decimetric spikes, 252

unresolved continuum, 170, 202

and EUV, 40

unresolved feature at 1.02 MeV, 191

and pion production, 204

variability relative to relativistic

and polarity inversion line, 46

bremsstrahlung, 199

and radio emission, 366

GeDs, 423

and reverse-drift type III bursts, 253

GEM challenge, 434

and type III bursts, 253, 256, 275

geomagnetic tail, 435

and UV ribbons

Giovanelli, R. G., 4, 89

illustration, 40

global waves, 74

and white light, 40

and X-ray dimming, 75

anisotropy, 329, 332

EIT, 75

break energies, 324

Moreton, 75

chicane, 157

seismic, 41, 57

conjugacy, 38

and backwarming, 57

coronal sources, 25, 62, 149, 150, 152,

and Lorentz force, 57

154, 161, 238, 240, 335, 340, 341,

and shock waves, 57

343, 350, 361, 393

type II radio burst, 68, 74

correlation with footpoint sources, 365

GOES, 128, 135, 138, 143

pivot point, 413

and radio fluxes, 234

soft-hard-soft, 379, 413

classification, 20, 266, 364

spectral evolution, 152

energetics, 84

thick-target, 152

illustration, 265

Yohkoh, 152

SXI, 71

coronal thick target, 62, 65

gradual phase, 21, 28, 142, 145

microwaves, 65

in microflares, 290

correlation with EUV, 139

radio

definition, 36

illustration, 246

directivity, 328, 329, 332-334, 361

Green’s functions, 310, 424

dynamic range, 429

GRIPS, 442

emitted power, 7

ground-level events, 37, 168

energy dispersion, 137

Gutenberg-Richter law, 281

filling factor, 127

gyrosynchrotron emission, 10

flux saturation, 128, 280

definition, 226

flux spectrum, 303

efficiency increase with frequency,

249

observed, 311

illustration, 22

primary, 311

microflares, 244, 275

footpoint sources, 40, 109, 113, 122, 131,

rarity in network flares, 278

150, 365

Razin suppression, 243

in gradual events, 70

footpoints, 27, 38, 341-343, 346, 348, 350

gradual emission, 359

Hadamard, J., 320

gradual events, 25

Hale Cycle 24, 4

halo component, 313, 314

Hanle effect, 54

hard-soft-hard, 142

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

463

height dependence, 131, 132, 158

spectral flattening, 126, 127

illustration, 135

illustration, 127

height dispersion, 109, 133

spectral index, 110, 113, 114, 142, 150,

high-energy cutoff, 323

342, 343, 348

identified with flare kernels, 43

spectral interpretation, 122

imaging, 377

spectral parametrization, 142

imaging spectroscopy, 37, 338

spectrum

inefficiency of, 8

double power law, 360

inverse Compton radiation, 158, 304

thermal interpretation, 360

lightcurves and spectra, 359

thermal models

loops, 133

polarization degree, 335

looptop sources, 358

thick-target, 109, 111-114, 122, 150, 156,

microflares, 273

228

multi-wavelength context, 21

thin-target, 111, 113, 114, 149, 161, 229,

near-simultaneity with γ -rays, 363

361

need for sensitive observations, 92

time delays, 109, 137, 159, 161

non-focusing optics, 37

time-of-flight analysis, 42

occulted, 152, 161

timing relative to γ -rays, 178, 179, 199,

optical depth, 304

216

overlap with radio diagnostics, 226

polarization, 161, 302, 328, 334-337

visibilities, 314-316, 344, 346, 347

quiet Sun, 278

He II 304Å

and nanoflares, 278

Doppler shift, 202

illustration, 278

Hinotori, 120

radio emission

rotating modulation collimator, 340

type III/HXR correlation, 254

Solar X-ray Telescope (SXT), 340

relation between footpoint and coronal

HXIS, 269

sources, 149

RHESSI

microflare observations, 265

image dynamic range, 160, 244

ribbon-like structures, 45

radio vs. HXR, 244

ribbons, 45, 54, 425

imaging

short time scales, 24, 41

γ -ray, 215

simple power-law continuum

microflares, 269

approximation, 318

imaging algorithms

soft-hard-harder, 68-70, 76, 122, 142, 145,

back-projection, 313, 315, 341

160, 440

CLEAN, 341

soft-hard-soft, 24, 68, 110, 125, 142, 143,

maximum entropy, 315, 341

152, 160, 285, 360, 413, 440

MEM-NJIT, 315

source centroids, 132

Pixons, 341

source sizes, 136

visibility forward fit, 315

sources uncorrelated with UV/EUV, 44

imaging spectroscopy, 37, 38, 149, 160, 338,

spectra

341

and pulse pileup, 322

electrons, 346

footpoints, 365

footpoints vs. coronal sources, 366

forward fit, 344

pivot point, 379

improvements, 442

soft-hard-soft, 285

multi-band, 442

spectral break, 127

neutrons, 207

spectral evolution, 128, 142, 158

pulse pileup, 342

interpretation, 145

visibilities, 344

soft-hard-harder, 122

impact polarization, 129

464

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

impulsive phase, 21, 26, 48, 142

energy range for γ -ray production, 175

radio type III bursts, 254

γ -ray production, 168

in situ

interaction in warm medium, 196

comparisons with remote sensing, 37, 89

neutron production

INTEGRAL, 155

(p,p) reaction, 208

integral equations

nuclear reactions

Fredholm-type, 327

(α, α), 171, 188, 194, 195

ill-posed nature of, 327

(α, n), 176

Volterra-type, 327

evaporation, 206

intensity

fusion, 171, 194

photon, 302

p(p,nπ⁺X)p^′, 184

interplanetary coronal mass ejections

spallation, 179, 181, 200

(ICMEs), 38, 75

number problem, 364

inverse Compton radiation, 158, 218, 226,

304

pitch-angle distributions, 173, 192, 194

inverse problem, 320, 334

pitch-angle scattering, 172

and microflare hard X-ray spectra, 286

model, 172

constraints, 320

secondary neutron production, 168

shock acceleration, 215

for γ -ray observations, 193

spectrum, 174

limitations, 196

total energy, 194, 195, 364

for X-ray spectra, 118

dependence on spectral distribution,

forward fit, 303, 317, 320, 362

364

ill-posedness, 320, 321, 327

transport time scales, 363

Landweber method, 321

ubiquity? 217

microflare imaging, 274

velocity dispersion, 172

regularized inversion, 303, 320

isothermal spectrum

validation, 321

improbability of, 360

Tikhonov regularization, 331, 346

inversion algorithms, 325

Landweber method, 328

jerks, 57

Tikhonov regularization, 321, 322,

334,

jets, 414

346

and loop brightenings, 277

first-order, 321, 322

reconnection

zero-order, 321, 322

geotail, 435

variable binning, 322

reconnection outflow, 159, 378, 384, 393

ion-neutral coupling, 382

illustration, 382, 409

ionization equilibrium, 77

recurring, 276

uncertainties, 80

X-ray, 244, 276, 277, 438

ionization state, 77, 109, 157, 287

coronal signature, 439

γ -ray line shape, 186

key questions, 424

nonuniform distribution, 122

particle energy loss rate, 111, 123

ions

Langmuir waves, 129, 406

acceleration

Laplace transform

in flares, 433

thermal bremsstrahlung emission, 327

α particles, 191

literature citation, 3

α/p ratio, 174, 191, 192, 194, 195

illustration, 4

distribution functions, 182, 364

“local” spectral index, 360

energy content, 197, 201

loop prominence systems, 6

energy distributions, 189

loops

α particles, 183

converging field, 174

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

465

γ -ray image structure, 212

worries about, 49

Hα footpoints in microflares, 273

flare-related changes, 31, 41,

58, 367

hard X-rays, 133

illustration, 57

time-dependent structure, 133

flux annihilation, 89

in microflares, 273

force-free, 6

ion transport models, 171

free energy, 5, 20, 58, 88

and time development, 177

height dependence, 72, 240

illustration, 173

in chromosphere, 171

legs, 133

in core of active region, 380

microflare

induced by particles, 378

lengths, 274

inductive, 363

mirror ratio, 181

time scale, 7

particle acceleration, 216

jerk, 58

tilted, 188

measurement

trapping, 178

radio techniques, 31

looptop sources, 27, 52, 59, 62, 65, 69-71,

non-potential, 358

159, 358

observation, 367

downward motions, 71

potential, 31

impulsive phase, 24

scale height, 132

microwaves, 233

shear distribution, 49

thick target, 63

ubiquity in corona, 227

loss of equilibrium, 284

wave, 376

low-energy cutoff, 25, 67, 81, 87, 109, 115,

XBP distribution, 277

116, 120, 122, 127, 139, 286, 303,

magnetic moment

309, 318, 319, 322, 325, 326, 362,

dimensionless, 392

364, 379, 424

magnetic Reynolds number, 369

above 100 keV, 122

magnetic storm, 75

and albedo, 362

magnetic structures

and return current, 126

2.5-D approximation, 53

and time-of-flight analysis, 122

and coronal seismology, 93

and warm target, 362

arcades, 139

in microflare hard X-ray spectra, 286,

292

asymmetric footpoints, 342

plateau, 117

bald patch, 31

sharp, 116

below transition region, 172

turnover, 117

CME formation, 26

Lumogen, 35

collapsing trap, 378, 382, 383

Lyman-α

collapsing traps, 160

Doppler shifts, 87, 202

complex, 395

need for observations, 92

core fields, 88

coronal current sheets, 89

coronal trap, 70

magnetic charge topology, 49, 51

current sheet, 66

magnetic diffusion equation, 369

and double coronal sources, 65

magnetic field, 30

cusps, 27, 110, 159, 246, 378

and polarization orientation, 334

illustration, 28

and return current, 126

δ spot, 22, 31

chromospheric, 382

dipolarization, 90

coronal, 33, 54

energy storage, 27, 31

and plasma containment, 67, 85

extrapolations from photosphere

energy storage, 27, 88

caveats, 83

extrapolation, 88

magnetic charge topology, 49

466

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

fan, 371, 391

quadrupolar configuration, 43

filamentation, 375

quasi-separatrix layers, 40

flux tubes, 132

separator, 371

footpoint connections, 342

separatrices, 28, 40, 48, 49, 156, 371

force-free, 27

and flare ribbons, 49

force-free arcade, 72

illustration, 49, 50

fractal dimension, 22, 397

sheared arcade, 72

γ -ray models, 171

shrinkage, 70, 246

Hall field, 435

spine, 371, 391

hard X-ray and γ -ray sources, 365

strong gradients, 22

helmet, 246, 371, 382

sunspots

illustration, 23

field topology, 28

implosion, 70, 71

three-dimensionality, 28

inclination determined via γ -rays, 188

tilted loops

interacting loops, 372, 374

γ -ray evidence for, 188, 192

interpretation of γ -ray imaging, 216

trapping, 137

islands, 408, 409, 414

turbulent particle confinement, 65

and tearing mode, 379

twists

coalescence, 437

and flare prediction, 22

Fermi acceleration, 429

variable shear, 22

illustration, 409

magnetic tension, 409

neutral points, 370

magnetic trapping, 137, 142, 146, 148, 152,

jets and open fields, 277

153

long polarity inversion lines, 22

magnetization, 130

loss cone, 130, 384

differential, 371, 375

definition, 385

magnetosphere, 380, 435

magnetotail, 435

reconnection rate, 437

microflare image morphology, 273

shocks, 376

mirror geometry, 5, 233, 358, 371

terrestrial, 75

and γ -ray production, 171

Malmquist bias, 293

moving, 383, 384

Mars, 437

Zweibel-Haber parametrization, 171

mass ratio

moss, 43

artificial value of, 411

multi-strand loops, 29

master equation, 284

multiple unstable current sheet, 396

Masuda flare, 42, 63, 240, 429

need for coronal magnetography, 54

table, 432

neutral line, 21, 31, 38, 367

mean electron flux, 112, 118, 122, 305,

illustration, 371

318-321, 325

null, 48, 51, 371, 378, 391

lack of electron beaming, 349

change in aspect ratio, 389

microflares, 78, 226, 269

illustration, 369, 409

GOES B class, 11

O-type (elliptic), 370

active-region association, 269

potential, 391

albedo correction, 285

X-type (hyperbolic), 370

and CMEs, 267

overly simplistic models, 335

and MeV electrons, 275

PIC simulation

and open field lines, 275

magnetic null, 411

and type III bursts, 256, 275

model size limits, 411

association with magnetic neutral line,

270

PIC simulation of magnetic islands

energy distributions

illustration, 408

illustration, 287

polarity inversion line, 21, 45, 88

energy estimates, 292

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

467

event energies

theory, 138

fluence determination, 280

use in place of HXRs, 61

Fe line, 273

neutron emission, 87, 208

gyrosynchrotron emission, 244, 275

time-extended, 208

hard X-ray

neutron monitors, 37, 169, 208

discovery, 266

direct detection of solar neutrons, 207

illustration, 275, 276

global network, 207

imaging, 269

neutron energy range, 207

jet association, 275

neutron telescopes, 37, 207

microwave emission, 275

neutron energy range, 207

non-thermal HXR, 273

neutrons, 37, 92, 206, 433

observational bias towards low activity,

advantages of observing, 207, 210

detection in space, 210

270

detection via decay products, 210

radio emission, 274

deuterium line, 423

radio observations, 243

elastic-scattering detection, 207

sensitive detection of, 10

energetic, 168

solar-cycle dependence, 270

ground-level detection, 168, 207

steep hard X-ray spectra, 273

half-life, 37, 206

thermal spectrum, 287

imaging

thermal/nonthermal relationship, 290

illustration, 434

X-ray spectral parameters, 285

lack of limb dependence, 208

models

low energy, 210

coronal electron density, 254

MESSENGER detection, 210

non-LTE, 56

multiple scatter detectors, 210

radiation hydrodynamic, 44

need for low-energy observations, 92

trap-plus-precipitation, 172, 178,

179,

181,

production by evaporation process, 209

233

production in (p,p) reactions, 208

and γ -ray imaging, 216

production in flares, 169

momentum balance, 61

Nobeyama radioheliograph, 275

Moreton wave, 75

non-isothermality, 80

moss, 43

non-potential energy, 23, 31

muon telescope, 207

non-uniform ionization, 109, 122, 157, 327,

myths

427

solar flare, 5

nonthermal electrons, 317

number problem, 4

nanoflares, 264, 278

and cellular automata, 284

observatories

and coronal heating, 278

Advanced Technology Solar Telescope

energy range, 266

(ATST), 33

EUV, 293

Big Bear, 34

Parker’s hypothesis, 264

Catania, 34

problem of energy scale, 277

Dunn Solar Telescope, 33

selection effects, 293

Dutch Open Telescope, 33

network flares, 278

El Leoncito, 32

Neupert effect, 25, 59, 61, 122, 138, 139, 158,

European Solar Telescope (EST), 33

285, 291, 434

FASR, 32, 54

and CME acceleration phase, 73

German Vacuum Tower Telescope, 33

illustration, 62

GONG, 34

in microflares, 290

Green Bank, 32

theoretical, 139

Hida, 34

468

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

Hiraiso, 32

γ -rays, 203, 211

Holloman, 34

illustration, 68, 285, 287

Huairou, 34

impulsive phase, 68

Jungfraujoch, 169, 207

Ohm’s Law, 126

Kanzelhöhe, 34

opacity minimum, 33, 41

Kharkov, 34

optically-thin source, 302

KOSMA, 205

OSO-7, 336

Learmonth, 34

Owens Valley Solar Array (OVSA), 22

LOFAR, 32

MSFC, 34

Mt. Norikura, 207

paradigms

Nançay Radioheliograph, 32, 254

flare acceleration of impulsive SEPs, 438

Nobeyama, 32, 65

precipitation from corona, 232

Nobeyama polarimeters (NoRP), 239

radio dominance of coronal sources, 242

Nobeyama Radio Heliograph (NoRH), 32,

Parker’s nanoflare mechanism, 264, 266

65, 227, 243, 244, 275

Parker, E. N., 89, 293, 369

Owens Valley Solar Array (OVSA), 32,

particles

227, 243, 244

delayed, 438

Phoenix-2, 32, 251

energy spectra

Pic du Midi, 34

low-energy cutoff, 303, 309, 319

Purple Mountain, 33, 34

inference of flux, 305

Multichannel Infrared Solar

ultra-relativistic leptons, 250

Spectrograph (MISS), 33

Petschek, H. E., 89

San Vito, 34

photospheric albedo, 303, 304, 306, 309, 312,

Siberian Solar Radio Telescope (SSRT),

313, 319, 320, 326, 332, 333, 335,

227

349

Solar Submillimeter Telescope (SST), 249,

illustration, 312

251

pions

SOLIS, 33, 34

and submillimeter radiation, 205

Swedish Solar Observatory, 33

illustration, 204

Themis, 34

γ -ray production, 168

Tremsdorf, 32, 257

pitch-angle diffusion, 375

Very Large Array (VLA), 227, 244

pitch-angle distributions

Yunnan, 34

and 2.223 MeV radiation, 183

observing facilities, 31

pitch-angle scattering, 172, 178, 328, 378

γ -rays, 36

and neutron production, 209

EUV, 35

strong, 172, 173

Hα, 34

weak at loop top, 246

hard X-rays, 36

plasma instabilities

infrared, 32

anomalous Doppler resonance, 130

magnetographs, 34

beam-plasma, 129

neutrons, 37

bump-on-tail, 41, 117, 129, 131, 251, 406

optical, 33

simulation, 129

particles and fields, 37

cold-beam, 401

radio, 32

electron-cyclotron maser, 130, 367

soft X-rays, 36

gyrosynchrotron maser, 130

solar energetic particles, 37

high beta, 65

ultraviolet, 35

in PIC simulations

occulted sources, 68, 132, 160, 161, 240, 242,

list, 407

252, 256, 285, 286, 429, 441

ion-acoustic, 130

exponential decay, 68

Kelvin-Helmholtz, 370, 407

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

469

kink, 370, 407

problems

loss-cone, 65, 69, 130

number, 4

and soft-hard-harder pattern, 65

prominence

lower hybrid drift, 370, 407

eruptive, 382

parametric, 381

proton events, 142, 145, 160

resistive, 370

and soft-hard-harder, 145

return-current, 129

protons

sausage, 370, 407

beams, 55

tearing mode, 379, 407, 410, 414

low energies, 201

two-stream, 401

neutron-decay, 207

various, 382

pulse pileup, 119, 161, 211, 317, 322, 342

Weibel, 130

plasma turbulence, 26, 90, 129, 160, 178,

206,

358, 400, 412, 414, 415

quasi-periodic pulsations, 24, 243, 252

polarization, 161, 302, 328, 334-337

decimetric, 243

circular, 65, 243

HXR and radio, 243

collisional impact, 202

interpretation, 243

electric field, 388, 401

magnetoacoustic waves, 122

gyrosynchrotron, 233

SOL2002-08-24T01:12 (X3.1), 245

Hα, 87, 129

quasi-separatrix structure, 40

primary flux, 335

quiet Sun, 277

RHESSI results, 350

absence of microflares, 269

thermal source, 335

positronium, 185, 317

2γ and 3γ decay, 186

radiation hydrodynamics, 59

formation by charge exchange, 186

and beam energy, 44

ortho- and para-, 185

radiative cooling, 138

positrons, 184

radiative loss function, 84

511-keV line width, 186

radio emissions, 110, 122, 155

difficulty of interpretation, 188

association with hard X-rays, 367

effective ion energies, 184

decimetric spikes, 367

illustration, 185

brightness temperature, 230

ion energies for production, 184

coherent, 251, 252, 367

positronium formation, 185

and flare energy release, 367

thermalization, 185

electron cyclotron maser, 226,

251

three-photon continuum, 186

high efficiency, 226

potential null, 391

Langmuir waves, 251

Poynting flux, 8, 380

plasma emission, 226, 251

and reconnection, 54

coronal seismology, 243

estimate from footpoint motions, 53

decimeter, 251

pre-impulsive phase, 425, 438

decimetric spikes, 252, 367

precipitation, 126, 172, 178, 179, 209, 233,

and hard X-rays, 252

337

diagnostics

and abundance variations, 183

microwave peak frequency, 231

precursor, 26

spectral index, 230

hard X-ray, 67, 425

fiber burst, 156

neutron-decay, 210

gyrosynchrotron, 10, 108, 367

superhot, 67

anisotropy, 233

probability densities

electron energies, 227

in cellular automata, 397

harmonics, 227

probability distribution function, 264

high harmonics, 240

470

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

microflares, 274

radioactivity, 199

turnover frequency, 235

and convection, 201

high brightness temperature, 251

created by flares, 199

incoherent, 226

Rankine-Hugoniot relations, 386

and HXRs, 226

Razin effect, 41, 243

gyrosynchrotron emission, 226

reactions

loop flare SOL2002-08-24T01:12 (X3.1),

charge-exchange, 87, 218, 442

245

and positronium, 186

microwave peak frequency

fusion, 171

formula, 231

nuclear, 168

microwaves, 10, 114

α/α, 194

circular polarization, 65

and broad-line component, 170

difficulty of determining optical depth,

codes, 202

239

depth distribution, 174

mm- and submm-wavelengths, 248

evaporation, 206

narrow-band spikes, 367

exothermic, 176

narrowband decimetric spikes, 252

neutron-producing, 184

need for imaging spectroscopy, 92

pion-producing, 184

negative microwave bursts, 59

spallation, 179

overlap with X-ray diagnostics, 226

plasma radiation, 386

thresholds, 184

pulsations, 367

recombination radiation, 55, 56, 77

rarity of loop geometry, 245

non-thermal, 306, 317

Razin suppression, 41

recombination radiation (non-thermal),

81,

reverse drift

158

illustration, 253

reconnection, 5, 27, 122, 246, 276, 358, 369

spectrograms, 41

2-D theory, 369

submillimeter, 205, 206

2-D vs. 3-D, 371

illustration, 204

and electron beams, 252

synchrotron, 240

and HXR footpoints, 50

termination-shock signature, 384

and particle acceleration, 149, 369

thermal, 234

and Poynting-flux transport, 382

optical depth, 234

and super-Alfvénic beams, 122

THz band, 248

circumstantial evidence for, 29

transport effects, 233

convective electric field, 28

type II bursts, 75, 155, 243

current sheet

type III bursts, 24, 76, 245, 252, 253,

256,

number problem, 375

268, 275

fan, 371, 390, 391

and hard X-rays, 253, 254, 256

flux transfer, 40

and impulsive SEP events, 438

flux transfer in ribbons, 53

and jets, 277

footpoint motions, 45, 54

association with CME, 255

gradual phase, 28

EUV jets, 276

Hall, 370, 371

harmonic, 367

at Mars, 437

illustration, 254-256, 276

reverse drift, 253

energy release, 437

reverse drift with HXRs, 252

illustration, 436

reverse slope, 252

laboratory experiments, 437

waiting time distribution, 283

magnetospheric subsolar point, 435

type III/HXR correlation, 253

magnetotail observations, 435

type IV burst

helmet-streamer geometry, 246

stationary, 367

history, 89

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

471

ideal region, 392

attenuating shutters, 78, 269

illustration, 54

and deadtime, 291

impulsive phase, 27

and microflares, 269

inflow, 89

Be-scatterer, 336, 337

in-situ observations, 434, 435, 437

collaborations, 10

interchange, 439

configuration, 37

laboratory experiments, 437

design and capabilities, 9

microphysics vs global physics, 89

dynamic range, 160, 343

multiple current sheets, 375

effective collecting area, 137

multiple sites, 367

γ -ray imaging, 40

non-occurrence, 88

germanium detectors, 336, 337

outflow, 66, 159, 257

HXR from quiet Sun, 278

in situ observations, 435

imaging spectroscopy, 80, 149, 160, 338,

parallel electric fields, 437

341

Petschek, 6, 159, 370

launch date, 10

rate correlated with acceleration, 159

literature citation, 4

slip-running, 46

maximum entropy, 315

slow, 370

non-diagonal spectral response, 318

spine, 371, 390, 391

offpointing, 278

spine and fan

pulse pileup, 119, 322, 342

test-particle acceleration, 393

rotating modulation collimators (RMCs),

standard flare model, 29, 30, 43, 46, 65, 66

313

Sweet-Parker, 6, 358, 369, 435

modulation harmonics, 316

energy storage, 437

rotation axis and imaging, 270

PIC, 409

spatial resolution, 109, 131

termination shock, 155

spectral response matrix, 79

two-fluid, 371

spectral resolution, 131, 138, 160

vs. annihilation, 89

spectroscopy, 309

relativistic equations of motion, 387

subcollimators (SC), 315

relaxation oscillator, 284

visibilities, 314

residuals

visibilities, 212

normalized, 317

ribbons, 21, 42, 139, 238, 395

resistivity, 130, 434

and fans, 414

anomalous, 370, 382, 407

and footpoints, 27

hybrid, 399

and separatrices, 28

return current, 7, 109, 120, 126, 128, 146,

and shear, 40

152, 157, 160, 202, 363, 377, 412

early vs. gradual phase, 42

and beam stability, 91, 129

energy release rate, 51

and double layers, 130

EUV, 38

and impact polarization, 129

flux transfer, 53

and soft-hard-soft, 149

illustration, 54

and spectral lines, 129

Hα, 6, 28, 30, 38, 340

charge carrier, 130

illustration, 43, 49

electric field, 411

hard X-ray, 45, 425

energy losses, 129, 137, 147, 155, 158

illustration, 45

and low-energy cutoff, 131

high current density, 49

instability, 129

illustration, 27, 40

RHESSI, 3, 21, 109, 167, 227, 264, 303, 358,

motions, 40, 45

423

multiple, 87

and QPP, 24

physics, 38

annealing operations, 10

topology, 40

472

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

TRACE EUV observations

Skylab, 3, 277

illustration, 43

SMM, 5, 120, 159, 170, 179, 182, 189,

UV, 28, 38, 44

191, 199, 202, 204, 207, 264, 364

rotating modulation collimator, 37, 214, 341,

ACRIM, 82

423

BCS, 78

GRS, 329, 364

HXIS, 269, 338

satellites

HXRBS, 25, 266, 290

ACE, 37, 82, 83

SOHO, 35, 37, 82, 83, 156, 159, 264, 277,

CGRO, 120, 137, 161, 170, 189, 191, 199,

365

203, 204, 264, 269

CDS, 59

BATSE, 24, 25, 266

EIT, 46, 80

CORONAS-F, 204, 205, 218, 336

LASCO, 74, 84, 156

RESIK, 36

MDI, 33, 58

Explorer series, 3

Solar Maximum Mission, 5

Fermi, 218

Solar Orbiter, 161

GAMMA-1, 170, 199

Solar Probe, 161

GOES, 20, 22, 82, 128, 135, 138, 143,

199,

SORCE, 426

265, 266, 269, 290, 364

TIM, 82, 294

SXI, 74

Space Shuttle Columbia, 336

GRANAT, 170, 189, 199, 204, 235

STEREO, 10, 35, 37, 87, 240

PHEBUS, 170, 360

TD-1A, 69

SIGMA, 170

TRACE, 23, 33, 35, 36, 38, 40, 139, 156,

WATCH, 264

159, 244, 255, 264, 276, 277

GSAT-2

Ulysses, 37

SOXS, 81

Venera-13, 329

HEAO-1, 168

WIND, 37, 255, 435, 437

HEAO-3, 168

3DP, 268

Hinode, 10, 33-35, 44, 276

illustration, 436

EIS, 59, 61

WAVES, 276

SOT, 33, 58

Yohkoh, 4, 5, 22, 24, 63, 149, 150, 152,

SP, 34

170, 189, 199, 264, 269, 291, 341,

XRT, 36, 62

358, 428, 429

Hinotori, 5, 120, 170, 189, 340

BCS, 36, 289

ICE, 264, 282

HXT, 37, 269

INTEGRAL, 37, 155, 170, 184,

193

SXT, 36, 266, 287, 288, 291

Intercosmos, 335, 336

white-light observations, 33

ISEE-3, 179, 264, 282, 329

scale invariance, 281, 284

MESSENGER, 210

scattering

OSO-3, 264

Compton, 176, 361

OSO-5, 62, 68

in Fermi acceleration, 376

OSO-7, 62, 168, 264, 336

inelastic, 40, 190

POLAR, 435

neutron, 209

Prognoz-6, 168

neutrons, 206-208

PVO, 329

pitch-angle, 171, 172, 178, 179, 206, 209,

RHESSI, 3, 3 3, 109, 170, 227, 264, 303,

232, 233, 246, 375, 377, 378

358, 423

ion recoil, 188

launch, 3, 170

ions, 172

SDO, 10, 34, 35, 158

strong limit, 173

AIA, 35

radio emission, 252

EVE, 36

Thomson, 84

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

473

self-organized critical state, 264, 282, 284,

skin depth, 403

396, 414

Skylab, 3, 11, 35, 277

separatrices, 28, 40, 48, 50, 371, 391

soft X-rays

illustration, 49, 50

and neutron emission, 208

shocks

and polarization, 336

and ENAs, 442

continuum, 77

and Moreton waves, 75

cooling

and reconnection, 6, 358

and time delays, 138

CME-driven, 75

coronal sources, 159

hydrodynamic, 58

double, 159

interplanetary, 75, 268

definition, 36

electron acceleration, 108

double coronal sources, 65, 89, 159

particle acceleration, 76, 86, 155, 375, 433

illustration, 66

and γ -rays, 215

downward motions, 135

emission lines, 36

radiative damping, 57

emission measure, 79

radio emission, 160

Fe K-shell emission, 76

slow mode, 159

Fe lines, 78

spectrogram signature, 75

gradual time profiles, 24

sunquake excitation, 57

height dependence, 133, 134, 136

supernova, 439

isothermal continuum approximation,

317

termination, 155, 159, 257, 359, 378,

383

long-decay events (LDE), 24, 70, 80

illustration, 257

moss, 43

numerical simulation, 384

multi-thermal modeling, 139, 140, 360

type II radio burst, 74, 243

illustration, 139

simulations

Neupert effect

3-D MHD

microflares, 285

and cellular automata, 397

parallel motions, 135

Hall MHD, 435

illustration, 135

kinetic, 371

ribbons, 21

MHD, 376

spectral dominance, 325

as framework for test-particle

spectroscopy, 76

acceleration, 399

summary of RHESSI results, 81

reconnection shocks, 384

superhot component, 67

standard flare model, 382

temperature coverage, 36

non-LTE radiative transfer, 56

temperature distribution, 327

PIC, 371, 374, 375, 379, 390

soft-hard-harder, 25, 68, 76, 440

3-D current sheet, 402

soft-hard-soft, 24, 68, 125, 285, 413, 440

acceleration in magnetic islands, 408,

and proton events, 145

429

and trapping efficiency, 146

collapsing islands, 407

and turbulence, 148

effect of polarization electric field, 401

in coronal sources, 379

energy spectra, 406

SOHO, 156, 159

illustration, 431

CDS, 60

limitations, 411

MDI, 365

low-density assumption, 403

Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO),

particle trajectories, 405

small mass-ratio assumption, 403

solar cycles

super-Alfvénic outflow jets, 409

cycle 24, 4

turbulent electric field, 406

γ -ray observations, 10, 170

radiation hydrodynamic, 26, 29

solar energetic particles (SEPs), 37, 76, 86,

two-fluid, 381

142, 145, 160, 268, 424, 438

474

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

³He-rich events, 202

ions, 174

and flare energy, 433

low-energy cutoff, 319

and microflares, 267

microwave

and neutron monitors, 207

illustration, 231

associated with hard X-rays, 160

peak frequency, 231

delayed, 438

neutral-pion decay, 203

gradual events, 268, 439

neutron-decay products, 38

HXR signature, 440

neutrons, 208

impulsive events, 268, 438

photons, 320

local neutron production, 210

illustration, 317, 331

shock acceleration, 433

spectral index, 324, 332, 333

total energy content, 86

π⁰-decay, 31

solar flare myth, 5

power-law, 114, 308

one component, 318

Solar Maximum Mission, 120, 159

two-component, 320

Gamma-Ray Spectrometer, 9

SXR continuum

Solar Orbiter, 161

and emission lines, 67

Solar Probe, 161

SXR emission lines, 78

Space Shuttle Columbia

upwards breaks, 250

polarimeter, 336

speed of light

space weather, 160, 439

artificial reduction in simulations, 411

and extreme events, 5, 422

standard model, 6, 45, 46, 440

specific ionization approximation, 56

2-D, 48

spectral break, 318-320, 323, 324

non-uniqueness, 257

spectral index, 348

stereoscopic observations, 38

spectrum

HXRs, 68, 329

511 keV line, 186

storm sudden commencement, 75

α particles, 196

submillimeter emissions, 205

α-⁴He line

angular resolution limit, 251

illustration, 195

atmospheric transmission, 249

broad γ -ray lines, 202

illustration, 204

electrons

increase at high frequencies, 250

and efficiency of evaporation, 62

observatories, 32

low-energy cutoff, 318, 319, 325, 326

relevance to γ -rays, 248

nonthermal, 317, 325

SUMER, 35

power-law, 325

sunquakes, 57

spectral break, 318-320, 324

and proton beams, 57

spectral index, 309

sunspots

thermal, 317

and flare occurrence, 422

flare

and flare ribbons, 50

broad-band nature of, 20

illustration, 51

γ -ray

and free magnetic energy, 20

variability, 183

and history of X-ray astronomy, 227

γ -ray lines, 85

and network field, 277

γ -ray model, 179

and seismic sources, 57

γ -ray pseudo-continuum, 85, 202

illustration, 57

γ -rays, 170, 171, 423

and white-light emission

gyrosynchrotron

illustration, 27

footpoints, 227

connectivity, 28

simplified formulae, 230

δ spots, 22, 31

hard X-ray, 360

penumbral disappearance, 58

infrared, 32

umbral field, 31

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

475

superhot component, 67, 242, 319, 425, 438,

Total Irradiance Monitor (TIM), 82

441

TRACE, 139, 156, 159

supernovae, 439

and DEM, 80

suprathermal populations, 90, 157, 241

flare arcade in EUV

and charge-exchange reactions, 218

illustration, 28

and thick-target model, 109

flare UV kernels, 44

Sweet, P. A., 89, 369

UV correlation with HXRs, 44

synchrotron emission, 232, 304

UV footpoints, 54

contrasted with gyrosynchrotron emission,

UV ribbons

226

illustration, 27

γ -ray continuum, 203

white light, 50

synchrotron energy losses, 203

transit particles, 387, 403

transit-time damping, 146, 377

syndromes

transition region, 35, 44, 123, 124, 133

big-flare, 40, 267

511-keV line width, 187, 217

microflares, 291

and evaporation, 60

non-hydrostatic, 132

temperature minimum, 56

transport

adiabatic invariants

termination shock, 383

pitch-angle distributions, 233

and particle acceleration, 384

biases acceleration theory, 412

illustration, 155

electrons, 146

radio evidence for, 257

in Alfvén waves, 428

test-particle approach, 6

ions, 171, 192, 363

limitations, 386, 387, 390, 400

and γ -ray imaging, 215

thermal conduction, 28, 138, 139, 158

radioisotopes, 200

thermal-nonthermal debate, 5

trapping, 172

thick-target model, 38, 228, 319, 325, 334,

and microwaves, 275

360

coronal, 70, 172

and spectral “dip”, 119

in turbulence, 146, 358

collisional, 21, 61, 111

magnetic, 70, 109, 137, 160

description, 109

models, 178

filamentation, 127

time scale, 137, 236

γ -rays, 174, 178, 195

TSI, 82, 293, 426

hard X-rays, 218

tsunami, 57, 75

height dependence, 135

turbulence, 26, 129, 178, 240, 358

HXR/radio comparison, 242

p-model, 399

implications, 156

ad hoc, 379

need for return current, 126

and electron distribution function, 129

radio flux, 232

and trapping, 154

standard, 109

interplanetary medium, 206

summary, 110

MHD, 148, 359, 377, 380

variable ionization, 123

perpendicular cascade, 382

warm target, 196, 197

particle acceleration, 146

thin target, 110, 229

plasma wave, 377

and coronal sources, 431

and free-bound emission, 307

γ -rays, SOL1991-06-01T16:14, 203

(u,v)-plane, 32, 346

ions, 174, 203

upflows, 29, 59, 61, 62

neutron production, 203

and beam heating, 61

Tikhonov regularization, 328

and radio dynamic spectra, 252

time-of-flight analysis, 42, 122, 137, 159, 360

EUV, 26

476

Space Sci Rev (2011) 159:447-476

explosive, 60

sausage mode, 24

height limit, 59

seismic, 41

SXR, 26

and γ -rays, 57

temperature dependence, 61

whistlers, 156, 371, 408

white-light flares, 51, 54, 56, 422

and HXR, 292

vacancy factor, 307

big-flare syndrome, 267

visibilities, 131, 291, 344

emission patches, 266

and electron flux maps, 132

energy input, 51

count, 344

illustration, 52

electron, 314-316, 344, 346

sub-arcsecond structure, 44

relative, 212

type I, 55

X-ray, 344, 346, 347

type II, 55

illustration, 314

workshops

RHESSI, 3, 6

theory team, 6

waiting-time distribution, 282, 283

Skylab, 4, 5

time-varying Poisson occurrence, 283

type III bursts, 283

warm target, 197, 362

X-ray bright points (XBP), 277

wave-particle interactions, 69, 233, 439

and basal coronal emission, 277

waves

and jets, 277

Alfvén

and surface convective flows, 277

and energy transport, 428

footpoints, 277

and magnetic reconnection, 382

hard X-rays, 277

illustration, 380

reflection at chromosphere, 381

loops, 277

Alfvén mode, 380

spatial distribution, 277

energy transport, 41, 57, 58

XUV spectral range, 36

fast-mode

broad-band, 377

growth rate, 378

Yohkoh, 110, 149, 150, 152, 325

ion-acoustic, 130, 381

Hard X-ray Telescope (HXT), 5

Langmuir, 251, 406

HXT, 325, 341, 428

in situ detection, 439

in bibliography, 4

magneto-acoustic, 370

Soft X-ray Telescope (SXT), 269,

287

and particle acceleration, 376

MHD modes, 243

plasma, 129

Zeeman effect, 30, 188

quasi-periodic pulsations, 24

infrared, 54